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The most important thing is to meditate regularly. The duration of the single session does not matter so much. It is better to meditate 20 minutes every day than to meditate two hours in one day and then take a break for one week.
That being said, 20 minutes per day is kind of a minimum in the beginning. If you do not manage 20 minutes, keep trying. Two times 20 minutes per day is a solid starting point.
If you want to meditate more, feel free to to so, but keep in mind that regular practice is most important.
Most people will just sit there and try to meditate for a long time. This is a normal stage on the path of meditation. You first have to get used to just sitting there and "not doing anything". Once this feels natural, you will reach a stage where you actually concentrate on the single point for short intervals (ekagattā).
The intervals will become longer and this is where the state of meditation (jhāna) is experienced for the first time. It will probably not feel special, just the feeling of boredom or agitation will be replaced by a sense of calm. This is it. Just keep practicing and progress will happen!
The short answer is: by practicing.
It is the nature of mind to get attached to mind objects (thoughts). This is a process that works completely on its own. Outside of meditation you often think about things that agitate or distract you. In meditation it is exactly the same thing, and you cannot "do" anything about it in the moment when it happens. All you can do is to continue practicing.
In the long run the practice of meditation will cause mind to become more focused, so it will not be so easily distracted and, subsequently, there will be less discursive thought. This development will also benefit practice, and meditation will become more tranquil.
Labeling things means to give them a short description when you become aware of them. For instance, when a thought comes up, you may think "thinking" and then let go of the thought. When a bodily sensation comes up, you think "sensing" and let it go, when mind wanders, you think "wandering", etc.
Labeling phenomena can be very helpful when beginning practice and it can even be helpful in everyday life. Some people prefer a single label, like "impermanent" or "uncertain", or "not helpful".
After a while the awareness of phenomena will become so keen that labeling is no longer necessary. The technique is not essential, either. If it does not work for you, this is also fine.
It depends on the kind of pain.
In the beginning there may be pain due to the unfamiliar posture during meditation. When concentration is weak, which it often is at the beginning of a meditation session, pain can stop you from entering the state of meditation. Once the meditative state is entered, pain will become less prominent. So it is important to enter a meditative state quickly, before the posture becomes uncomfortable. Achieving this is a matter of training.
When pain caused by posture becomes intense, it is best to change the posture slightly. Numb or hurting legs can often be cured by choosing a different posture for a short time. Back pain is different, as it will only increase over time. Strength training can help to avoid back pain.
Then there is pain that is unrelated to meditation practice. The nature of pain is to arise and pass away, like all phenomena. This can be observed any time when something hurts, but the perception will be calmer and keener in meditation. There are lots of things about pain that can be learned in meditation. When pain moves to the focus of meditation, observe it until the focus moves back to the breath.
First of all: get enough sleep. Some Buddhists will tell you that sleep is a sign of laziness. Do not listen to them!
Sleepiness or lack of concentration is often experienced when practicing late in the evening, so the most obvious solution is to practice at a different time of the day.
But, of course, a lack of concentration may occur at any time of the day. It manifests as "emptiness" of the mind, but without the lucid clarity of meditation, just like the state of mind short before falling asleep.
There are some things you can try in this case. Focusing more intensely on the breath is one option. When this does not help, stretching without getting up from the cushion is another one. When this does not help, switching to walking meditation for a while might be an option. Performing some bodily exercises (like strength training to prevent back pain) would be a last resort.
When dullness or sleepiness is a recurring problem, performing strength training right before meditation will probably avoid the problem, but at the cost of increased agitation.
Most importantly, though: get enough sleep!
When practice has become a habit, agitation will soon go away after sitting down on the cushion. If it does not, it may be a good idea to sit down somewhere else (not in the meditation spot) and relax for a while before starting the practice. Walking up and down before practice instead of sitting down works better for some people.
When agitation does not lessen or even becomes stronger during practice, the first thing to try is to focus more on the breath. When this does not work, it often helps to just wait a little longer. Agitation, like all phenomena will subside eventually. When the agitation is too strong or turns into panic, though, it does not make sense to endure it. In this case, try walking meditation or finish the session and try again at a later time.